They’re Often Overlooked, But They’re as Steeped in Tradition as Their Asian Counterparts!
Story and illustrations by Ken Vaughn

The Asian martial arts have received a tremendous amount of exposure in the past century and are now almost universally known. Meanwhile, we in the West have neglected many of our own martial traditions, which in some cases have fallen into obscurity—much as the Asian systems had at the end of the 19th century. The Japanese arts were rescued by Jigoro Kano, Gichin Funakoshi, Morihei Uyeshiba and others, who modified the techniques of older styles and combined them into curricula that would appeal to the public. Likewise, Cheng Man-ching introduced tai chi chuan, a once secret and obscure Chinese style, to America, which led to its spread around the world. Similar success stories pertain to the arts of other Asian nations.
One reason the Asian fighting methods have flourished is they’ve changed with the times. Many were “modernized”—in other words, they were altered from methods of pure combat to means of self-improvement and spirituality, based mainly on Buddhism but also influenced by Taoism and Shintoism. Witness aikido, which borrowed extensively from the Shinto sect of Omoto-kyo, and iaido (sword drawing) and kyudo (archery), which use physical action as a form of Zen meditation. In China, Taoist styles of kung fu such as tai chi and pa kua have become physical illustrations of philosophical principles. And in Korea, the arts have been molded to reflect the Korean ideals of patriotism and sportsmanship.
The above-mentioned founders of the modern martial arts wrote scores of books to describe their techniques, as well as their ideas for self-improvement and spirituality. That no doubt helped spread the message of the Asian arts to the masses. But what of the Western fighting styles, the ones that originated in the countries from which most Americans come? Do they have as much to offer the modern practitioner? It is the opinion of many that they do.

Combat Sports
Boxing, wrestling, fencing, archery and javelin throwing are the best-known forms of Western martial-like play, and although they’re somewhat limited by safety rules, they’re still extremely effective in their own way. They are sports that haven’t developed as methods of self-improvement and spirituality to the extent the modern martial arts have, but they do teach sportsmanlike behavior and build character. This idea of sport goes back to the ancient Greeks, who believed that a beautiful body was as important as a sharp mind.
Sportsmanship is concerned with fairness in competition and grace in defeat. Character involves putting forth one’s best and abstaining from immediate gratification for the sake of later rewards. This Protestant-like value develops self-discipline and the ability to suppress one’s appetites, as well as the capacity to function as part of a team for the greater good, rather than pursuing personal glory and ambition. It also promotes self-sufficiency and the ability to think on one’s feet. Submitting to authority in the form of coaches and referees serves as a model for social conduct. Unfortunately, those qualities are seldom seen these days in professional and college sports.
Boxing and wrestling are at least as well-known as karate and judo, and they can hold their own against any Asian striking and grappling style. They can easily be made more combative and dangerous by incorporating the techniques that are considered fouls. The two sports were used for combat in the past, but the dangerous techniques were removed for the safety of the players. The fouls can be practiced as prearranged drills in much the same manner as the kata of the Japanese arts are. Known as “dirty fighting,” they’re what thugs and ruffians used before the introduction of the martial arts in the mid-20th century. Bruce Lee held an extremely high opinion of the Western martial sports and drew heavily on boxing and fencing while developing jeet kune do.
Boxing as practiced by the ancient Greeks involved minimal science. It consisted mainly of swinging- and looping-type blows and little defense other than the ability to “tough it out.” The Romans added a leather hand wrap or glove called a cestus, sometimes with metal studs to inflict more damage as their tastes grew bloodier. As boxing evolved in England, it was influenced by fencing, which added more accurate and powerful linear thrusts rather than swings, and more effective parries rather than simple blocking. The shuffling footwork of boxing is nearly identical to that of fencing, as is the use of strategy to allow one to strike a target rather than just lash out at it. It’s interesting to note that in Japan, swordsmanship also influenced aikido.
The sport of bare-knuckle fighting used many methods that are no longer allowed: the “chopper,” or hammerfist strike; a technique that utilized the head to block and break the delicate bones of the opponent’s hand as well as to strike his face; and the cross-buttock throw. With the introduction of gloves and the rules of the Marquis of Queensbury, the “manly art of self-defense” developed into the “sweet science” of boxing.
In addition to being a type of play for children, wrestling is the most ancient and universal form of combat. Humans love to grapple and do so all over the world. There are images of wrestlers from ancient Egypt, references to it in the Bible and the continuing popularity of the Greco-Roman style (which was actually developed in France in the 1860s). Probably the most widespread and varied are the many ethnic and folk styles of wrestling. All forms of the art offer numerous skills and techniques—including takedowns and grappling moves effected from the bottom and top positions—that are deemed valuable for street fighting. Most also include plenty of illegal techniques that can hurt and maim, which makes wrestling supremely useful in ground encounters.
Fencing developed into the academic study of the sword and later into a sport. The sword was the preferred weapon for combat and self-defense, and its use continued even after the introduction of firearms. Military officers still carry a sword as part of their dress uniform. The tradition of dueling with the sword continued in Europe into the 20th century. Fencing parallels kendo in that it’s associated with refined people, as well as the noble ideals and higher values (chivalry, bushido) of an elite fighting class of knights.
The foil is not a weapon but an instrument to learn how to fence. There are two main styles of foil fencing: the French style is refined and precise, while the Italian style is more powerful and athletic. A good foundation of foil technique is a prerequisite for learning the epee (sport version of the dueling sword, or rapier, a thrusting weapon) and then the saber (a cavalry sword mainly used for cutting while on horseback). The Italians and Hungarians are said to have developed the best saber technique.
Several books about medieval and Renaissance sword fighting have been published. They’re based on solid research and reflect the combat applications rather than the sporting aspect of the weapon. There are also many translations of old sword-fighting manuals from the 12th century to the 18th century from England, Germany, Italy, France and other countries. Those manuals teach combat methods for the sword, sword and shield, two-handed sword, rapier and dagger.
Part of most modern track-and-field events, the javelin has distant origins as a projectile weapon for hunting and waging war. It was most effectively used in combat by the ancient Romans. The weapon had a heavy wooden handle connected to the point by a thin metal shaft that would easily bend. It wasn’t necessary to pierce the opponent’s flesh; it was enough simply to get it to stick into his shield. The shaft would bend so he couldn’t throw it back, and before he could pull it out of his shield, the Roman soldier would charge with his sword drawn.
The bow has been decisive in determining the outcome of battles throughout history—although Greek and Roman armies usually prevailed without depending on it. The English made effective use of it, as did the Persians and Mongolians, but the modern bow owes its development to the Turks. Archery is now practiced mostly as a sport, but bow hunting and even bow fishing remain popular. Modern special-forces operatives sometimes use bows for clandestine missions.

Ethnic Styles
There are also lesser-known ethnic fighting traditions in specific localities throughout Europe. The following is a brief overview of some of them.
More obscure than boxing is the martial sport of France: Ie boxe Francais savate. In Marseilles, a method of kick fighting called chausson was developed and later adopted by French sailors. In the back alleys of Paris, savate was created by street fighters. The two styles were combined, and the more refined punches of English boxing were added in 1845 to make it a well-rounded fighting system.
Savate contains many of the kicks found in karate and taekwondo, including the chasse (side kick), fouette (roundhouse kick) and revers tendu (hook kick). They’re delivered with more snap and less power, and have more of a flicking quality. Modern sport savate uses combinations of kicks and punches, as well as jumping and spinning kicks. Also associated with it are Ie canne (cane) and Ie grand baton (staff).
The mother of all European fighting arts is pankration, which was part of the Olympics in the fifth century B.C. The goal was to beat the opponent or force him to give up by whatever means necessary. Pankration means “all strength” and, based on the writings of Philostratus, must have been similar to modern vale tudo (Portuguese for “anything goes”) and luta livre (“free wrestling”). It used a combination of hand strikes, kicks and wrestling, and was both effective and dangerous. In modern times, the style has been revived by Jim Arvanitis, a Greek American.
Glima is a folk style of wrestling in Iceland. It was developed by the Vikings and in some ways resembles judo and jujutsu. The players control each other by grabbing a special belt, then attempt to throw each other with one of eight “tricks” designed to upset an opponent’s balance. A similar style exists in Switzerland and is called lutte Suisse or schwingen.
There are several styles of Celtic and English wrestling:
• West Country style—The players wear canvas jackets. The goal is to throw the opponent to the ground. There is no ground work. In the Cornish style, the jacket is tucked under the left arm at the beginning of the match. In the Devon style, the players were allowed to kick each other in the shins until recently.
• Cumberland style—It’s practiced in northern England and southern Scotland. The wrestlers stand chest-to-chest, wrap their arms around each other’s body with each player’s chin on his opponent’s right shoulder. Then they attempt to throw each other to the ground.
• Catch-as-catch-can style—It’s practiced in Lancashire and throughout Britain, the United States and other English-speaking countries. It’s the style practiced almost exclusively in American high schools and the true descendant of ancient Greek wrestling. It includes ground work as well as takedowns.
Early in the 20th century, the Soviets developed a method of combat and sport called sambo, which drew upon the fighting methods of various ethnic groups. It also combined judo with street and prison fighting techniques. Once a state secret, it’s now popular, especially among athletes who compete in mixed-martial arts contests.
Juego del palo (“stick play’) is still practiced in the Canary Islands, a part of Spain off the coast of Africa. It was first recorded by the Spanish in the 1400s but is a much older form of combat and recreation. Various lengths of sticks are used. No protective equipment is worn; safety is maintained by the skillful control of the players. There are several styles named after the families who developed them. A number of organizations and educational institutions now regulate Canary Island stick fighting.
“Single-stick play” evolved in England as a safe method of practicing sword-fighting skills. Using an ash stick with a hand guard, it continued to be practiced in public schools until the early 20th century. The goal was to strike the opponent until “blood ran down at least an inch of the forehead.” Footwork and evasion were not allowed; rather, the players depended on parries. The stick was held in the right hand, and the left was tied loosely to the thigh so it could be raised only high enough to defend the left side of the face.
The navaja de bolsillo (“pocket knife”) was carried as a tool and weapon throughout the Mediterranean and was systematically taught as a fighting method in Spain, especially the southern region where Spaniards, Moorish Arabs, Sefardic Jews and Gypsies lived side-by-side but not necessarily in peace. The navaja resembles a big pocketknife and can be seen in Carlos Saura’s film Blood Wedding (Bodas de Sangre).
Those are just a few of the European martial traditions about which facts can be readily found. Many others exist or existed—for example, the English quarterstaff. Very common in centuries past, it was mentioned in Legend of Robin Hood. Its method must have been highly developed, but there’s little evidence that authentic instruction still exists. Similarly, there are the arts of the battle ax, spear and mace, as well as the mental methods the Vikings used to psych themselves up before battle (which gave us the word “berserk”).

Cultural Heritage
The aforementioned ethnic styles are not as well-known or widely practiced as the Asian martial arts or the European martial sports, but they’re part of our cultural heritage. As humans, we’re violent by nature, but we’re also ingenious enough to preserve our successful experiences and learn from the mistakes of others. This knowledge was passed on to succeeding generations as informal folk styles or as highly developed fighting systems.
The firearm nearly spelled extinction for the Asian martial arts, and in some cases it appears that Asian martial arts have done the same to the European folk arts. It may be argued that there’s no reason to preserve or revive this knowledge—guns have made the use of swords and spears obsolete and knives and fists impractical. But if the anti-gun forces achieve their ultimate goal of removing firearms from the hands of law-abiding Americans—criminals will always find ways to get their weapons of choice—society may one day have to return to these archaic methods for basic survival.

About the author: Ken Vaughn is a free-lance writer and researcher based in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

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